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ecosystem health
Ecosystem health is a metaphor used to describe the condition of an ecosystem.〔Rapport, David (1998). “Defining ecosystem health.” Pages 18-33 in Rapport, D.J. (ed.) (1998). ''Ecosystem Health.'' Blackwell Scientific.〕 Ecosystem condition can vary as a result of fire, flooding, drought, extinctions, invasive species, climate change, mining, fishing, farming, logging, chemical spills, and a host of other reasons. There is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem,〔Rapport, David J. (1992). “Evaluating ecosystem health.” ''Journal of aquatic ecosystem health'' 1:15-24〕 rather the apparent health status of an ecosystem can vary depending upon which health metrics are employed in judging it 〔Palmer, Margaret A. and Catherine M. Febria (2012). “The heartbeat of ecosystems.” ''Science'' 336:1393-1394.〕 and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment. Advocates of the health metaphor argue for its simplicity as a communication tool. “Policy-makers and the public need simple, understandable concepts like health.”〔Meyer, Judy L. (1997). “Stream health: incorporating the human dimension to advance stream ecology.” ''Journal of the North American Benthological Society'' 16:439^447〕 Critics worry that ecosystem health, a “value-laden construct,” is often “passed off as science to unsuspecting policy makers and the public.”〔Lackey, Robert T. (2007). “Science, scientists, and policy advocacy.” ''Conservation Biology.'' 21(1): 12-17.〕
== History of the concept ==
The health metaphor applied to the environment has been in use at least since the early 1800s〔Anon (1816). “Rural economy, agriculture, and husbandry.” ''Encyclopaedia Perthensis'' Volume 19, 391-497. Edinburgh: John Brown.〕〔Anon (1839). “On the culture of potatoes”. ''Framer’s Magazine, '' 2(5):337-338.〕 and the great American conservationist Aldo Leopold (1887 – 1948) spoke metaphorically of land health, land sickness, mutilation, and violence when describing land use practices.〔Leopold, Aldo (1946). “The land health concept and conservation.” Pages 218-226 in Callicott, J. Baird, and Eric T.Freyfogle. (1999) ''For the Health of the Land. '' Washington DC: Island Press.〕 The term “ecosystem management” has been in use at least since the 1950s.〔Lutz, H.J. (1957). “Applications of ecology in forest management.” ''Ecology'' 38:46-64.〕 The term “ecosystem health” has become widespread in the ecological literature, as a general metaphor meaning something good,〔Jax, Kurt. (2010). ''Ecosystem Functioning.'' Cambridge University Press〕 and as an environmental quality goal in field assessments of rivers,〔Davies, P.E. et al. (2010). “The Sustainable Rivers Audit: assessing river ecosystem health in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia.” ''Marine and Freshwater Research'' 61:764–777.〕 lakes,〔Xu, F, ZF Yang, B. Chen, and Y.W. Zhao. (2012). “Ecosystem Health Assessment of Baiyangdian Lake Based on Thermodynamic Indicators.” ''Procedia Environmental Sciences'' 12: 2402–2413.〕 seas,〔HELCOM (2010). ''Ecosystem health of the Baltic Sea 2003-2007'' HELCOM Initial Holistic Assessment.Balt. Sea Environ. Proc. No. 122.〕 and forests.〔Covington, W. Wallace et al. (1997) “Restoring Ecosystem Health in Ponderosa Pine Forests of the Southwest.” ''Journal of Forestry'' 95:23-29.〕
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